Behavioural Ecology of Butterflies in Relation to Flower Colour Preference: A Systematic Review

Abstract

Butterflies, among the most important daytime pollinators, pollinate many flowering plants and are essential to the upkeep of terrestrial biodiversity. The foraging behaviour of nectar foraging organisms is strongly affected by floral traits. The flower colour is the first and primary visual cue. The preference of butterflies towards flower colour is determined by the complex involvement of their innate sensory response, learning ability, environmental condition, nectar reward and co-evolutionary association with flowering plants. Different families of butterfly prefer different coloured flowers and the reason for this lies in a complex interplay of visual physiology, ultraviolet sensitivity, feeding morphology, and habitat specialization.  Details regarding the colour choice of butterflies are useful for pollination studies, habitat restoration, biodiversity conservation and butterfly-friendly habitat development programme. This systematic review is about butterfly behaviour on flower colour preference. It encroaches upon all the research articles which were published between the years 2000 and 2025. Literature related to butterfly behaviour on flower colour preference has been collected from various peer review journals, books, seminar symposium and conference proceedings, and biodiversity database based on systematic review principles. The review looks at visualisation in butterflies and colour discrimination, behavioural ecology, floral characters determining visitation, impact of environmental factors, evolutionary significance and conservation importance. The study revealed that flowers displaying the colours blue, purple, yellow, and white usually attracted the maximum diversity of butterfly species, but it varies among taxonomic groups and biogeographic regions. When butterflies are on the lookout for flowers to feed from, they use colour as a cue, but colour doesn’t act in isolation. Nectar information, UV reflectance, flower shape, scent, temperature, season and previous foraging success act collegially to determine visitation. Human-induced changes to habitats; invasion by exotic plants; use of pesticides; and climate change are increasingly influencing butterfly–plant interactions and networks.  Although we have made great advances in colour preferences and their evolution, there are still major gaps in our knowledge. These gaps exist in molecular processes underlying colour perception, behavioural plasticity in changing climates and species-specific colour preferences in the tropics. The future development of research that incorporates behavioral ecology and sensory biology together with remote sensing, molecular approaches and artificial intelligence will enhance accurate quantification.